Mathematics revision Exercise 1

1. Find the size of each angle of a triangle PQR in which PQ = 9 cm, QR = 12 cm and RP = 6 cm.
2. R represents half-turn about the point (2, 3). H represents half-turn about the point (-2, -1). Find a single a single transformation equivalent to HR and state its inverse.
3. For each of the following wave functions, state the period and the amplitude;

          a) y = 2 Sin x

          b) y = Sin 2x

          c) y = 1/3 Sin x

         d) y = 1/3 Sin 3x

         e) y = Sin ½ x

         f) y = Sine 1/3 x

 

   4. Solve the following pair of simultaneous equations graphically;

5. A card is drawn at random from a normal pack of playing cards. what is the probability of drawing ;

a) a black card?

b) a red card?

c) an ace?

d) the queen of spades?

6. a pencil PQ is 20 cm long. The end P is placed on a horizontal flat surface such that PQ makes an angle of 47° with the surface. Calculate how far above the surface the pint Q is.

7. Solve the following inequalities and show your solutions on a number line;

a) 3x - 5 > 5

b) 2x + ½ < 3

c) - 4x - 6 > 7

8. Evaluate each of the following;

9. A quadrilateral has vertices at A(1, 2), B(1, 3), C(2, 3) and D(3, 1). Find the vertices of the image of the quadrilateral after a reflection in the following lines;

a) y = x + 1

11. ABC is an isosceles triangle with AB = AC and its perimeter is 64 cm. The altitude from A to BC IS 24 cm. Find the length of AC and BC.

12. Two variables x and y are connected by an equation of the form y = Axⁿ, where A and n are constants. If y = 80 when x = 2 and y = 52 when x = 3, find the values of A and n to 2 s.f.

13. Find the distance in nautical miles between point A(4° S, 50° E) and B(4°S, 80°E).

14. Draw a line AB = 4.5 cm. Construct a locus of a point P such that <APB = 40°.

Online TPAD filling tutorials

 

Session 1.  Account Creation

Session 2. TPAD Online System Dashboard for Different Users

Session 3. NOTIFICATIONS

Session 4. Self Appraisal presentation

Session 5. How to undertake lesson observation.pptx 20thJuly 2020

Session 6. Learners progress record

Session 7. Lesson attendance

Session 8.  APPRAISAL BY APPRAISER Pry and Sec

Session 9.  Agreement on Target Achievements & Completion of the Appraisal Process (1)

Session 10. SCHEDULING OF APPRAISAL RATING MEETING.

Session 10a.TPD PRESENTATION

Session 10b. 2020-OVERVIEW OF TPD IN KENYA

Session 11. .TPAD OFFLINE Excel Sheet (1)

Session 12. CANCELLED APPRAISAL (1)

Session 13.  PERFORMANCE CONTRACT

Session 14.   TPAD - TEACHER REPORTS

Session 15. TPAD - HOI REPORTS (1)

Session 16. Allocation of Rights

Session 17. Head of Institution (HOI) Portal TTC

Matrix arrangements for KUPPET Nyamira politics back to square one.

The realignments and campaign strategies for the KUPPET positions in Nyamira county, were on Sunday disgruntled after the serving secretary secondary official, Mr. Joseph Sonye declared that he will be seeking to occupy the office of the Executive secretary in his next term in office. The team office had been moving from one sub-county to another in what it termed as ‘meet the people tour’ and was remaining with two sub-counties (Manga and Masaba North). The day they were meeting the Manga Sub-county teachers Mr. Sonye was underway with his meeting at Nyamira sports club where he eventually declared to be running for the most powerful seat in the County KUPPET.

The post of the executive secretary had attracted three contestants, Mr. Nyakweba (incumbent), Mr. Nyaanga and Mr. Marigwa before Mr. Sonye dived into the race. According to the political analysis, his declaration has introduced completely new arithmetic.

To start with, team office was moving together fronting what they have been able to achieve as a show of solidarity and unity. Now they have to replace their preferred candidate for the post of secretary secondary for them to remain a complete team during the campaigns hoping that no more incumbents will break away from team office.

Secondly the opposition was unable to come up with a strong complete team to face the incumbents. They were campaigning as individuals which had proved to be expensive and ineffective. While Mr. Sonye was giving his remarks at Nyamira on Sunday he promised to move to every sub-county and compose a formidable team for the purpose of this forthcoming elections.

Mr. Sonye (terming himself ‘Yusuf bin Sonye’ on facebook), is an English and literature teacher at Machururiati secondary school. He got into KUPPET office during a by-election where he had been seen as an underdog barely two years ago. Since then his groundwork campaigns and mobilization ability can cause jitters to any contestant facing him in an election but for now it is a wait and see if he will manage to shutter Mr. Lewis Nyakweba’s dream of steering the KUPPET Nyamira for at least 20 years.

Joe Biden's full speech after becoming president-elect

My fellow Americans, the people of this nation have spoken.

They have delivered us a clear victory. A convincing victory.

A victory for “We the People.”

We have won with the most votes ever cast for a presidential ticket in the history of this nation — 74 million.

I am humbled by the trust and confidence you have placed in me.

I pledge to be a president who seeks not to divide, but to unify.

Who doesn’t see red and blue states, but a United States.

And who will work with all my heart to win the confidence of the whole people.

For that is what America is about: the people.

And that is what our administration will be about.

I sought this office to restore the soul of America.

To rebuild the backbone of the nation — the middle class.

To make America respected around the world again and to unite us here at home.

It is the honor of my lifetime that so many millions of Americans have voted for this vision.

And now the work of making this vision real is the task of our time.

As I said many times before, I’m Jill’s husband.

I would not be here without the love and tireless support of Jill, Hunter, Ashley, all of our grandchildren and their spouses, and all our family.

They are my heart.

Jill’s a mom — a military mom — and an educator.

She has dedicated her life to education, but teaching isn’t just what she does — it’s who she is. For America’s educators, this is a great day: You’re going to have one of your own in the White House, and Jill is going to make a great first lady.

And I will be honored to be serving with a fantastic vice president — Kamala Harris — who will make history as the first woman, first Black woman, first woman of South Asian descent, and first daughter of immigrants ever elected to national office in this country.

It’s long overdue, and we’re reminded tonight of all those who fought so hard for so many years to make this happen. But once again, America has bent the arc of the moral universe towards justice.

Kamala, Doug — like it or not — you’re family. You’ve become honorary Bidens and there’s no way out.

To all those who volunteered, worked the polls in the middle of this pandemic, local election officials — you deserve a special thanks from this nation.

To my campaign team, and all the volunteers, to all those who gave so much of themselves to make this moment possible, I owe you everything.

And to all those who supported us: I am proud of the campaign we built and ran. I am proud of the coalition we put together, the broadest and most diverse in history.

Democrats, Republicans and Independents.

Progressives, moderates and conservatives.

Young and old.

Urban, suburban and rural.

Gay, straight, transgender.

White. Latino. Asian. Native American.

And especially for those moments when this campaign was at its lowest — the African-American community stood up again for me. They always have my back, and I’ll have yours.

I said from the outset I wanted a campaign that represented America, and I think we did that. Now that’s what I want the administration to look like.

And to those who voted for President Trump, I understand your disappointment tonight.

I’ve lost a couple of elections myself.

But now, let’s give each other a chance.

It’s time to put away the harsh rhetoric.

To lower the temperature.

To see each other again.

To listen to each other again.

To make progress, we must stop treating our opponents as our enemy. We are not enemies. We are Americans.

The Bible tells us that to everything there is a season — a time to build, a time to reap, a time to sow. And a time to heal.

This is the time to heal in America.

Now that the campaign is over — what is the people’s will? What is our mandate?

I believe it is this: Americans have called on us to marshal the forces of decency and the forces of fairness. To marshal the forces of science and the forces of hope in the great battles of our time.

The battle to control the virus.

The battle to build prosperity.

The battle to secure your family’s health care.

The battle to achieve racial justice and root out systemic racism in this country.

The battle to save the climate.

The battle to restore decency, defend democracy, and give everybody in this country a fair shot.

Our work begins with getting Covid under control.

We cannot repair the economy, restore our vitality, or relish life’s most precious moments — hugging a grandchild, birthdays, weddings, graduations, all the moments that matter most to us — until we get this virus under control.

On Monday, I will name a group of leading scientists and experts as transition advisers to help take the Biden-Harris Covid plan and convert it into an action blueprint that starts on Jan. 20, 2021.

That plan will be built on a bedrock of science. It will be constructed out of compassion, empathy, and concern.

I will spare no effort — or commitment — to turn this pandemic around.

I ran as a proud Democrat. I will now be an American president. I will work as hard for those who didn’t vote for me — as those who did.

Let this grim era of demonization in America begin to end — here and now.

The refusal of Democrats and Republicans to cooperate with one another is not due to some mysterious force beyond our control.

It’s a decision. It’s a choice we make.

And if we can decide not to cooperate, then we can decide to cooperate. And I believe that this is part of the mandate from the American people. They want us to cooperate.

That’s the choice I’ll make. And I call on the Congress — Democrats and Republicans alike — to make that choice with me.

The American story is about the slow, yet steady widening of opportunity.

Make no mistake: Too many dreams have been deferred for too long.

We must make the promise of the country real for everybody — no matter their race, their ethnicity, their faith, their identity, or their disability.

America has always been shaped by inflection points — by moments in time where we’ve made hard decisions about who we are and what we want to be.

Lincoln in 1860 — coming to save the Union.

F.D.R. in 1932 — promising a beleaguered country a New Deal.

J.F.K. in 1960 — pledging a New Frontier.

And 12 years ago — when Barack Obama made history — and told us, “Yes, we can.”

We stand again at an inflection point.

We have the opportunity to defeat despair and to build a nation of prosperity and purpose.

We can do it. I know we can.

I’ve long talked about the battle for the soul of America.

We must restore the soul of America.

Our nation is shaped by the constant battle between our better angels and our darkest impulses.

It is time for our better angels to prevail.

Tonight, the whole world is watching America. I believe at our best America is a beacon for the globe.

And we lead not by the example of our power, but by the power of our example.

I’ve always believed we can define America in one word: possibilities.

That in America everyone should be given the opportunity to go as far as their dreams and God-given ability will take them.

You see, I believe in the possibility of this country.

We’re always looking ahead.

Ahead to an America that’s freer and more just.

Ahead to an America that creates jobs with dignity and respect.

Ahead to an America that cures disease — like cancer and Alzheimers.

Ahead to an America that never leaves anyone behind.

Ahead to an America that never gives up, never gives in.

This is a great nation.

And we are a good people.

This is the United States of America.

And there has never been anything we haven’t been able to do when we’ve done it together.

In the last days of the campaign, I’ve been thinking about a hymn that means a lot to me and to my family, particularly my deceased son, Beau. It captures the faith that sustains me and which I believe sustains America.

And I hope it can provide some comfort and solace to the more than 230,000 families who have lost a loved one to this terrible virus this year. My heart goes out to each and every one of you. Hopefully this hymn gives you solace as well.

“And He will raise you up on eagle’s wings,

Bear you on the breath of dawn,

Make you to shine like the sun,

And hold you in the palm of His Hand.”

And now, together — on eagle’s wings — we embark on the work that God and history have called upon us to do.

With full hearts and steady hands, with faith in America and in each other, with a love of country — and a thirst for justice — let us be the nation that we know we can be.

A nation united.

A nation strengthened.

A nation healed.

The United States of America.

God bless you.

And may God protect our troops.

Puzzles at the education ministry

Education ministry can be considered as one of the most puzzling as far as the handling of Covid-19 is concerned at least if the public court is anything to go by.
Schools were closed when the country had only three cases and now teachers have been asked to report back to school to prepare for a possible reopening when the country is recording an average of 100 Covid-19 cases daily. Teachers are to report back to school without knowing the specific date when learners are to report back. Anyway teachers have always been in touch with the schools.
As learners were away from schools the ministry maintained that the national exams were to be done as scheduled to a point where everyone was ' let us wait and see'. Eventually the ministry bowed to pressure and announced that it cannot be possible to conduct national examination this year. And farther said that this academic year is considered lost only to wake up today and ask teachers to report to school when even bars have not been allowed to open up.
Teachers are to report back to school when the government's Covid-19 containment measures are yet to be relaxed. The 9 pm curfew is still effect and the government's appeal for people to work from home hasn't been lifted. The education cabinet secretary has been moving from one educational institution to another measuring the social distancing between the desks and that social distancing rule is still in place even in the matatus. That means teachers will have to pay more on public transport.
Let the government open up the economy before letting the teachers from all over the world to congregate in schools. Teachers should not be used to test the waters for Covid-19.
The ministry of education did make an effort to conduct online learning. The exercise has been termed as step in the right direction. The major drawback has been the low number of learner who could access the matriamls. If the ministry could have been creative enough, it could have made use of other agencies like the poster Kenya to deliver materials closer to the learners.
But however much the management of the education ministry is proving to be tricky, it should be noted the professor Magoha who is the current education SC, was at the helm of the Kenya National Examination Council and made tremendous positive reforms.

Teachers’ investments headed South as Spire bank is on the spot again

Spire bank, a bank largely owned by teachers is on the headlines again all for the wrong reasons. It should be noted that all along the teachers have been against the acquisition of the bank but contrary to their wishes the top management of Mwalimu National Holding (MNH) still controls the bank. MNH spent over 2 billion in order for the bank to meet the minimum capital requirements to operate. The capital injection has now become a norm with the teachers who have invested in the Mwalimu National Sacco continue to receive reduced dividends on their investments.
According to the business daily, the bank has already recorded a loss of 254.7 million in the first quota of this year which already projects a negative impact on the teachers' dividends this year. It is the members' prayer that the bank won't be placed under receivership by the Central Bank of Kenya (CBK) which will mean that the members won't access their savings but will be required to be servicing their loans.
In a letter to the members of the Mwalimu National Sacco dated June 3rd, 2020, the Sacco confirms to the members that it is aware of the misfortunes of the bank but there is no turnaround strategy on the table as at now. The Sacco blamed the Covid-19 pandemic on slowing down the strategies that could have been put in place to save the teachers investments.
Early this year the CEO of the bank, Mr. Onesmus Muia was suspected of practicing unethical behaviors. In the accusations it was alleged that Mr. Muia was working unlawfully with law firms to raise fabricated fees against the bank which will then be sent to Mr. Muia's personal bank account at Family bank in Ruiru. As at the third week of January, Mr. Muia's bank account had over KSh. 76 million. For more on that story click here.
Lastly it should be noted that the members are systematically losing grip with the Mwalimu National Sacco. A good example is the Nyamira branch. After the lapse of the term of four delegates representing the members in the Sacco, the branch has been unable to replace the delegates or mandate them to continue representing the members. That means the branch is operating short of four delegates bearing in mind that the term of three other delegates is lapsing this year.
Now teaches are a worried lot that if nothing is done urgently, things are headed South.
Compiled by;
Erwin Mogusu
omogusu@gmail.com
www.omogusu.blogspot.com

Gearing up for union leadership in Nyamira

As the five-year term of the current KUPPET officials is first approaching, the vigor for new members to take up the posts is at a very low gear. Teachers specifically in Nyamira branch have been expecting the current office bearers and the members warming up for the posts to be on the forefront in mobilizing members for the forthcoming elections.

It should be noted that there are several teachers, and in that matter, members of the union who have never participated in choosing of their union leaders. These include those teachers who have been employed within the last five years. During this period, neither the employer nor the union has had the cutesy to invite them for a meeting and induct them or listen to the challenges they are facing in their new work places. That group of teachers need a lot of guidance in regard to union elections and union mandate. That guidance should start now and not later. The incumbents should tell these group of teachers what they haven't done that they need to do or what they will do differently if reelected.  Previously TSC has been calling for induction meeting for new teachers but that has not happened since the year 2012. It was a good practice that could have been maintained or the union should have taken it up.

There is another group of long serving teachers who have never seen the reason of joining a union. Such teachers think that joining a union or not joining is just the same. Just like some naive individuals in our society think that voting in a general election or not voting wouldn't affect their way of life. Let me remind them even if they could be in the inner circles of the current school administrations and they do not expect any push and pull that may require the intervention of the union officials, union leaders make decisions that can affect our profession significantly. For instance, at this time of the pandemic, their advice to the government to or not to open schools is weighty, union officials can decide to sponsor teachers to attend professional development seminars among other things. Therefore, choosing the right leaders in the union is protecting our professional integrity.

If you take a look at the organizations of other professions like the law society of the Kenya (LSK), choosing their leaders is so competitive to an extent of even igniting debates in our national television stations. Here in our union things are so soundless that even the members are now requesting to know if there are other contests apart from the current office bearers. Mwalimu Atari has posted in the various Nyamira teachers WhatsApp groups requesting the various aspirants to come out. Only a few have shown interest of tackling incumbents. They include;

Vice-chair

• Renson Mokaya

Ass. Ex Sec

• Robert Kipkirui
• Evans Matuga(Gavana)

Gender

• Mosiria

Let me do me do a little research and post the photos of these aspirants, their background and their philosophies.

Nyamira KUPPET politics

Kenya Union of Post Primary Education Teachers (KUPPET), is growing to be a giant in articulating education matters in general and issues affecting the Kenyan teacher in particular. The growth of the union can be attributed to the increased sensitization of the teachers, the preserved good and genuine leadership in KUPPET, infighting within the Kenya National Union of Teachers (KNUT) which is now scaring new teachers from joining it, to list but a few.

In Kenya, teachers constitute the largest cohort of government employees followed by the police who are not allowed to form or join a union. This means that the influence of a person in a leadership position in a giant teachers’ union such as KUPPET is overwhelming. Such a person is expected to not only deal with education matters but a wide spectrum of issues in the society which normally catapults such individuals to others leadership positions including in the county governments or the national assembly leaving the union positions for other teachers.

The post of the executive secretary is the most powerful among all the posts in the union. As the date for choosing the next officials draws nearer, in Nyamira the executive secretary’s position seems like it will be a one horse race. According to the survey conducted in the last two weeks, the incumbent executive secretary Mr. Lewis Nyakweba has clear upper hand of retaining the seat if he still contests. The survey included four other office bearers who were expected to be influential in matters relating to KUPPET politics.








This indicates that Mr. Nyakweba is getting a thumbs up for the leadership he is offering in the Nyamira KUPPET. It should be noted that Nyamira had a successful AGM where all attendants were issued with branded KUPPET t-shirts and most teacher were accorded an opportunity to air their comments on how the union can grow farther. Moreover, the union has come out strongly to support the co-curriculum activities in the county by either issuing t-shirts, trophies and even drinking water among other incentives. Attendance of a KUPPET official during the opening or closing ceremony of a co-curriculum activity in the county is now a norm. Although the Nyamira teachers would like to see more pronounced progress like acquiring a KUPPET bus and acquiring land for its offices, it indicates that the small progress and the good gesture of Mr. Nyakweba’s leadership of the union is resonating well with the teachers.

The executive secretary has also been in the frontline in advising teachers on matters pertaining the teaching profession and even defending them whenever they are wrongly or rightfully accused. He always attends teachers’ activities like workshops and Mwalimu National Sacco AGMs to bring the support, power and prestige of his office. During such functions he will not miss to throw one or two pieces of advice to the teachers either through the microphone line or informally in small groupings before or after the meeting.

The survey also shows that a small number of teachers were ready to participate for various reasons. Others feared that maybe their identities could be revealed not knowing that the website used doesn't have the provision of knowing who voted. It only keeps record of the electronic device that has voted to avoid voting more than once from the same device. It could also exemplify the tendency of humans that they can't be asked to vote without proper campaign and mobilization including transportation (in this case bundles to go online). Thirdly and less significant is that some teachers may have not known how to participate in the online voting. Contrary, in the neighboring Kisii county, in every survey it records over 300 participants.

You can check the survey by clicking here.

As I conclude, I would like to wish you a happy freedom day that will be celebrated on Sunday the third day of May the year 2020.

BY;

Erwin Mogusu (omogusu@gmail.com),

A teacher in Nyamira county.

Biology revision

Below are a set of biology essay questions, click on the question to reviel the answers.

1. Explain the various ways in which a typical cell is adapted to its functions

2. Explain how the various specialized cells aremodified to carry out their functions in plants and animals

3. Describe how the mammalian body protects itselfagainst infections

4. How are the leaves of higher plants adapted to their functions?

5. Explain how the various teeth adapt mammals fornutrition

6. Describe what happens to a meal of oily beansand maize from the time of ingestion up to the time of absorption

7. Howare the small intestines in mammals adapted to their functions?

8. Outline and explain the various homeostaticfunctions of the liver in mammals

9. Explain why the following conditions are necessary for photosynthesis 
a) Carbon (IV) Oxide
b) Light
c) Chlorophyll
d) Suitable temperature and pH
e) Water

10. How is the ileum adapted to its functions?

11. a)What is homeostasis?

b)Name any three factors that must be maintained constant in mammalian bodies
c)Explain how endotherms respond to heat and cold conditions in their environment

12. Describe the route taken by water from the soilup to the evaporating surface of a plant

13. How is the mammalian heart adapted to its functions?

14. Describe double circulation in mammals

15. Describe the process of urine formation in the mammalian kidneys 

16. Explain the role of the following hormones during homeostasis

a) Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH)
b) Insulin
c) Glucagon

17. a)Distinguish between Diabetes mellitus and Diabetes insipidus 
b) Explain how mammalian bodies regulate glucose and protein levels in their blood

18. Explain how the various abiotic factors mayaffect plants 

19. Discuss the causes, effects and control measures for water pollution

20. How are xerophytes and hydrophytes adapted to their habitats?

21. Outline the differences between wind and insect pollinated flowers

22. Describe what happens in a flower from the time of pollination up to the time of seed and fruit development

23. Discuss the adaptations of the female reproductive system of humans

24. Describe the process of gaseous exchange in terrestrial plants

25. How is the mammalian gaseous exchange system adapted to its functions?

26. Describe the structure and function of the mammalian skin

27. Describe the role of the following hormones in the menstrual cycle 
a) Luteinising Hormone (LH)
b) Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH)
c) Oestrogen
d) Progesterone

28. a) What is secondary growth? 
b) Describe the process of secondary thickening in a woody stem

29. Discuss the various mechanisms of opening and closing of stomata

30. a) What is natural selection? 
b) Discuss three examples of natural selection in action

31. Discuss Lamarck’s and Darwin’s theories of evolution

32. a) Explain how the following blood cells are adapted to their functions 
i) Red Blood Cell
ii) White blood cell
b) Explain the different ways in which Carbon (IV) Oxide is transported by blood

33. Describe how the following vertebrae are adapted to their functions 
a) Atlas
b) Axis
c) Lumbar
d) Thoracic

34. a) Why is locomotion necessary in higher animals? 
b) Explain how bony fish are adapted to their habitats

35. Describe how the various supportive tissues in plants adapt them to their habitats

36. a) What is a reflex action? 
b) Outline the activities that occur in the body when one touches a hot object

37. Describe the nitrogen cycle

38. Discuss how the various tropisms adapt plants to their habitats

39. Discuss the various evidences of organic evolution

40. Describe the structure and functions of the various parts of the mammalian ear

41. Discuss the various ways employed by preys to avoid the predators

42. a) What is meant by the term symbiosis? 
b) Describe five types of symbiotic relationships in a natural ecosystem

43. a) Describe the adaptations of Schistosoma spp to their parasitic mode of life

b) Outline five measures that can be employed to prevent andcontrol the spread of the parasite

44. Describe the process of mitosis 

45. Discuss the various mechanisms that hinder self-pollination and self-fertilisation in plants

46. How are seeds and fruits of plants adapted to their mode of dispersal?

47. a) Distinguish between mutations, mutants and mutagens 
b) Give two causes of mutations 
c) Describe the causes and effects of chromosomal mutations

48. a) What is transpiration? 
b) Explain how the various environmental factors affect the rate of transpiration

49. How is the mammalian eye adapted to its functions?

50. Discuss the role of the various hormones in plant growth and development

51. Explain how the process of evolution may result to the formation of a new species

52. Discuss the various ways in which anaerobic respiration is utilized in industries and homes

53. a) What is digestion? 

b) What is the importance of a balance diet in human nutrition?

54. Explain the factors that affect enzyme activity

55. Discuss the adaptations of the male reproductive system of humans

56. Discuss the structure and functions of the various muscle tissues found in humans

57. State the economic importance of members of Monera and Fungi and for each economic importance name a suitable or appropriate organism

58. Describe the adaptations of the nervous system to its functions

59. Discuss the composition and functions of mammalian blood

60. Describe the defects that affect the mammalian eye and how they could be corrected

Describe the defects that affect the mammalian eye and how they could be corrected

Short-sightedness (myopia); a condition where light rays from a distant object are focused in front of the retina; while those from a near object are clearly focused on the retina; it is caused by an abnormally elongated eyeball; or too much refractive power of the eye lens; it is corrected by wearing concave/diverging lenses; which help to diverge light rays; or reduce the refractive power of the eye before they reach the eye lens; Long-sightedness (Hypermetropia); light rays from a near object are not focused by the time they reach the retina; or may be focused behind the retina; while the rays from a distant object are sharply focused; the defect is caused by an eyeball that is too short; or a weak lens system (distance between lens and the retina is short); corrected by wearing a convex/converging lens; which refracts light rays before reaching the eye lens; this enhances refraction resulting in rays being sharply focused onto the retina; Astigmatism; rays from an object are brought to focus on different planes; due to unequal curvature of the cornea/lens; causing unequal refraction of light entering the eye; this defect is corrected by wearing special cylindrical lens in front of the eye; the lens corrects the focus in the defective planes; Colour-blindness; a genetic defect; in which an animal is unable to distinguish between colours particularly within the red-green spectrum; the retina lacks cones; pigments that respond to colour vision; Squintedness; an eye defect in which extrinsic muscles of the eye; that controls the turning of the eyeball do not co-ordinate accordingly on stimulation; it affects the paired rectus muscles that move the eyeball up and down; and the lateral rectus muscles that move the eyeball left to right; the eyeballs therefore face different directions; making focusing and accommodation difficult to achieve; corrected by specialized surgery; Old sight (Presbyopia); caused by old age; when supplies of nutrients and oxygen to the lens is far much reduced; hence the cells of the lens die; the lens’ elasticity is reduced; and hence cannot change shape; and becomes fixed into a shape that is not suitable for distant vision; managed by use of ‘reading glasses’ that have converging lenses; to give the eyes an extra power to manage close work; Cataracts; associated with old age; but may also be caused by an eye injury due to a blow;  or complications of diabetes mellitus; the eye lens become cloudy; blocking transmission of light rays; protein fibres become denatured; and clump together making the lens opaque; corrected by surgery; to replace the defective lens with a normal one from a donor; or use of artificial lens;

Discuss the composition and functions of mammalian blood

Mammalian blood consists of two main components: Blood plasma; and the blood cells; (Red blood cells/Erythrocytes, White blood cells/Leucocytes and Platelets/Thrombocytes); Blood plasma transport  nutrients (glucose, amino acids, vitamins, fatty acids and glycerol, dissolved oxygen) to tissues; transports hormones, enzymes/metabolic regulators to target organs and tissues; Transport excretory substances/wastes from the cells; to excretory organs for elimination from the body; Distribute heat energy; helping in thermoregulation; transports/contains water, plasma proteins and dissolved mineral salts; important in osmoregulation; Suspends blood cells; Red blood cells transport oxygen; and dissolved carbon (IV) oxide; helps in regulation of pH; White blood cells help in protection/immunity; by engulfing or producing antibodies to kill/destroy invading micro-organisms/pathogens; Platelets help in blood clotting; preventing excessive blood loss; entry of pathogens; and promotes healing of wounds;  Acc. Adaptive features

Describe the adaptations of the nervous system to its functions

The central nervous system consists of the brain; and the spinal cord; and nerve fibres; that serve the sensory organs ; and the effector organs and glands; the brain is a collection of millions/billions/10⁹ neurones; that form the biggest ganglion; it is highly convoluted; to provide a large surface area for impulse reception, processing and transmission; the brain and the spinal cord are protected by the meninges; the brain and the spinal cord have spaces/canals and ventricles; filled with a cerebrospinal fluid; which acts as a bridge/supply medium for oxygen and nutrients; and the removal of metabolic waste; the brain has centres for the storage; retrieval and processing of impulses; the cerebrum processes and stores information; the cerebellum; sends impulses to joints and muscles; to correct balance; the medulla oblongata sends impulses to the cardiovascular; and breathing/ventilation systems; to regulate them; the brain has the hypothalamus that secretes a neurosecretion to influence a pituitary gland that secretes hormones; involved in reproduction; and homeostatic functions; the hypothalamus; detects changes in temperature; and osmotic pressure; and sends impulses to relevant effector organs for their regulation; the thalamus; receives majority of the impulses and channels them to the relevant areas of the brain; both the brain and the spinal cord have regions of the grey matter; that enable very rapid processing/transmission of impulses; the nervous system has neurones (relay/intermediate, motor and sensory); that transmit impulses at a very rapid note/speed (100 ms^-1) to and from the central nervous system to effect suitable responses; there exists in the central nervous system an electrochemical gradient/concentration gradient; that allows for the generation of electrical impulses; they have numerous mitochondria; for generating energy for the function of the sodium pump; which enables polarization and repolarisation; during impulse transmission and refractory/recovery periods; the spinal cord has no integration/association functions and is therefore suited for reflex actions; needed in emergencies; the spinal cord is long; and connects nerve fibres of the peripheral nerves with the brain for storage of information; the spinal cord has a dorsal root for sensory fibres/neurones; and a ventral root; for motor neurones/fibres; Accept any other correct 

State the economic importance of members of Monera and Fungi and for each economic importance name a suitable or appropriate organism

Fungi: Yeast is used in the production of alcohol; and raising dough in baking; production of vitamins B₂ and B₁₂ and for beer brewing; some mushrooms are used as food; Saprophytic fungi such as Mucor spp/Rhizopus spp cause food spoilage; are also used in retting of natural fibres such as flax; and in the curing of tea and tobacco; The fungi also decompose organic matter helping to clean the environment and recycle materials. Saprophytic fungi are also used to make silage; compost; and digesting sewage in sewage treatment plants; Penicillium spp is used for the manufacture of antibiotics; Fungi is used for making ghee and cheese in dairies; parasitic fungisuch as Phytophthora spp infest crops e.g. potatoes and tomatoes and destroy them/cause blight; somefungi such as Aspergillus spp produce food poisons and is also used in the synthesis of enzyme amylase; Mycorrizae fungi enable trees e.g. pinus to absorb water amd mineral salts more efficiently in silviculture/man-made forests; some fungi such as and Tinus spp cause diseases such as yeast infections (Candidiasis, ‘Athlete’s foot’) and ‘ringworms’ respectively; some Candida spp is used in making enriched food/single-celled proteins used in animal feeds/silage; Gibberella spp is used in the synthesis of Gibberellins for plant growth; it also causes poor crop growth through bolting of plants e.g. rice and wheat;

Bacteria: Some bacteria e.g. Vibrio spp cause disease to humans and other animals (any one disease); Clostridium spp and Bacillus spp bacteria are used in retting of flax; Lactobacillus spp are important in the manufacture of yoghurt/silage; and lactic acid; some bacteria e.g. Streptomyces are used in making antibiotics (Streptomycin); organic acids such ac acetic and ethanoic acids are made using Acetobacter spp of bacteria; some bacteria like the soil bacteria

(Bacillus spp) make enzymes used in detergents; Escherichia coli (E. coli)/colon bacteria contaminates drinking water and may cause diseases; bacteria such as Bacillus spp and are used in making hormones such as insulin through genetic engineering/modification; all saprophytic bacteria such as E. coli/Bacillus spp/Pseudomonas spp are used in the production of methane/biogas; Rhizobium spp of bacteria helps in nitrogen fixation making soils fertile; 

Discuss the structure and functions of the various muscle tissues found in humans

Smooth/Visceral Muscle; consists of spindle-shaped cells; made up of long filaments or myofibrils; the cells lack cross striations and sarcolemma; they are uninucleate/with one cell; they contract and fatigue slowly; to bring about contraction and relaxation of the walls of blood vessels, urino-genital tract and the gut; which aids in blood flow, urine and sperm flow and peristalsis of food respectively; Skeletal/Striated muscles; made up of long cylindrical cells; with long myofibrils running parallel to each other; the cells have cross striations/stripes; are multinucleated; they form bundles of long fibres attached to bones by tendons; they contract and fatigue rapidly; to bring about movement of bones; (on the body) they contain contractile protein myosin and actin; Cardiac/Heart muscle; this is the muscle of the heart; is made up of short cylindrical cells; with parallel myofibrils; the ends of each all are thickened into intercalated discs; that connect adjacent cells; the myofibrils have cross striations; each cell is uninucleate; the myofibrils contract without fatigue;

Discuss the adaptations of the male reproductive system of humans

Consists of two oval-shaped testes; lying outside the abdominal cavity in a special sac known as the scrotal sac/scrotum; for protection; the testes are located outside the body to provide a relatively cooler environment/lower temperature; suitable for sperm production; the inside of the testis is divided into seminiferous tubules; these are three coiled and twisted tubules; having rapidly/actively dividing cells that produce sperms; interstitial cells; found between these tubules produce the male sex hormones/androgens (mainly testosterone); important in promoting the development of secondary sexual characteristics; and maintaining masculinity in males; the tubules join together to form the epididymis; which are smaller ducts; that convey sperms out of the testes; they also form a temporary storage area for sperms; the epididymis is connected to the sperm duct/vas deferens; which has thick muscular walls; that contracts to propel sperms to the urethra; the sperm duct is joined by a duct from the seminal vesicle; a blindly ending sac; that produces an alkaline fluid containing nutrients for the spermatozoa/sperm cells; to provide energy; at the junction of the two sperm ducts (one from each testis) and urinary bladder there is the prostate gland; that secretes an alkaline fluid that neutralizes the acidic vaginal fluids; and also activates the sperms; by addition of enzymes and diluting the sperms;  below the prostate gland is the cowper’s gland; which secretes an alkaline fluid which neutralizes the acidity caused by urine; along the urethra. The urethra; is a long tube running the length of the penis; used for conduction and expulsion of urine; as well as passage of sperms during copulation; the urethra follows the penis; that projects from the body at the lower abdomen; it consists of a retractable skin known as the prepuce/foreskin; that covers a swollen/bulbous end region of the penis known as the glans; the glans excites the clitoris of the female as it brushes on it during copulation; to stimulate ejaculation/orgasm; the penis is made up of spongy erectile tissue; consisting of numerous small blood spaces, muscle and blood vessels; the spongy tissue gets filled with blood; making the penis to become erect during sexual stimulation excitement and activity; enabling the penis to penetrate the vagina during coitus/copulation/sexual intercourse; in order to deposit sperms in the vagina of the female;

Explain the factors that affect enzyme activity

Temperature; enzymes are protein in nature; and hence sensitive to temperature changes; as temperature increases, enzyme activity also increases until optimum/maximum; above this optimum the reaction decreases sharply; due to the destruction of the enzyme structure/become denatured; making the enzyme ineffective/non-functional; most enzymes have optimum temperature of between 35^oC and 40^oC; when temperature decreases, the rate of enzyme reaction decreases as the enzyme becomes inactivated; pH/acidity or alkalinity; most enzymes have optimum pH of close to 7/neutral which is the intracellular pH; however some enzymes work best in an alkaline medium while others work best in  an acidic medium/condition; as the pH exceeds optimum, the enzyme activity decreases; extreme acidity or alkalinity denatures most enzymes; Substrate concentration and enzyme concentration; enzyme reaction increases with increase in substrate concentration; up to a certain level where further increase in substrate concentration does not increase the rate of enzyme reaction; this is because when substrate concentration is increased, all the active sites of the enzyme are occupied; however, when the enzyme molecules are increased, there is a proportional increase in the maximum rate of enzyme action; enzymes are however required in small amounts hence; they speed up the rate of biochemical reactions without altering the equilibrium;  Enzyme cofactors/coenzymes; these are non-proteinous substances which activate the enzymes; most enzymes will not work without them; examples of cofactors are metallic ions such as iron, magnesium, zinc, copper and also vitamins as enzyme coenzymes; these substances are required in small amounts and are used repeatedly/can be recycled; Enzyme inhibitors; these are substances that inhibit enzyme action by competing with the normal substrate for the active sites; there are two types: competitive and non-competitive; competitive inhibitors have no permanent effect on the enzyme action; while non-competitive inhibitors combine permanently with the enzyme molecules thus distorting or blocking the active sites permanently; examples of these inhibitors include cyanides, mercury, silver; inhibition can be reduced by reducing the concentration of the inhibitors; or by increasing the substrate concentration;

What is digestion?

a) What is digestion?

Digestion is (mechanical and chemical) the process by which large complex food molecules; are broken down into soluble molecules (for absorption across intestinal wall to bloodstream)



b) What is the importance of a balance diet in human nutrition?

A balanced diet consists of all the food types in their right proportions; it includes proteins, carbohydrates, minerals, lipids, water, vitamins and roughage; Proteins; used for growth and repair of worn out tissues; provide energy incase of acute shortage of carbohydrates/starvation; bind and transport specific molecules from one part of the body to another; structural proteins support tissues in the body e.g. bone and cartilage tissues; act as metabolic regulators such as enzymes and hormones; Carbohydrates; used to produce energy/store energy; Lipids produce energy; form of storage of energy; insulate the body; major structural components of the cell membrane; when oxidised, it provides metabolic water; Vitamins; defense against infections; form coenzymes which activate enzymes; Water; a universal solvent; medium for chemical reactions; used as coolant because of its high specific heat capacity; maintains the shape of cells; hydrolysis of many substances; transport medium in the body; Mineral salts; formation of teeth and bones; formation of hormones (e.g. thyroxine); formation of blood; maintenance of osmotic pressure of body fluid; transmission of nerve impulses; Roughage; makes food to be bulk; promotes peristalsis; and absorption of water in the large intestines; induces mucus production;

Discuss the various ways in which anaerobic respiration is utilized in industries and homes

Bread making; yeast is used to ferment sugar in wheat flour into carbon (IV) oxide and energy; the carbon (IV) oxide is produced in form of bubbles that causes the dough to rise and become porous; Beer making; yeast is used to ferment sugars in malt/grapes/fruits; to form beer, wines and spirits; Sewage treatment; anaerobes break down raw sewage and harmful industrial effluents; to harmless products of water, energy/heat and carbon (IV) oxide; Silage formation; vegetation is fermented by bacteria to produce nutritious and good-scented/flavoured animal feed that increases production/yields; Production of acids and strong liquors; special bacteria and fungi ferment food products; to produce acids such as citric acid, oxalic acid and vinegar; the products are used as food preservatives and flavouring agents; Manufacture of dairy products; under controlled environments; anaerobes help in fermentation hence manufacture of milk products such as butter, cheese, ghee and yorghurt; Production of fuels such as biogas; and gasohol; cane sugar is fermented by yeast; to produce gasohol for running engines or operating machinery; animal wastes such as guano and cow dung; can be used to produce a mixture of methane and carbon (IV) oxide gas; by exposing it to fermentation agents; methane is used to run simple machines such as water pumps and for cooking; Production of fermented porridge and milk; maize or wheat flour and milk is exposed to microbes in the air which ferment it; to produce sour and sweet tasting porridge or milk;